Section 1
- The Roman Empire: In what ways did Roman emperors use coinage/art/architecture to communicate their message?
The Roman Empire is famous for its art and architecture. It represented an important part of their society, culture, and intellectual value. The Roman emperors used the art, coinage, and architecture to deliver or send out messages. The whole concept is also known as “persuasion and propaganda.” These messages were to create certain impressions in front of the local public about the emperor such as his power and influence. For example, Augustus, the roman emperor showcased the Ara PacisAugustae. The name of the sculpture itself means “The Alter of Peace” and was dedicated to the roman goddess of peace, Pax. He implied that he has long connection with the Romans and hence, he was the rightful heir to the throne, after three years in Hispania and Gaul, to Julius Caesar. In this way, he told the people that he was rightfully ruling over them and dominating them. The presence of the emperor was felt everywhere. He had begun a new age (Kleiner, pp 202).
Another example of the emperor Trajan can be given here as well. He was a really powerful general and during his time the empire was all over Europe, West Asia and North Africa. To showcase his success in battles, he also used art and architecture. He put the Column of Trajan in Rome to show the defeat of Dacia which we know as Romania today. The 625 feet column documents the battle against the army of Dacia. He personally directed how this column was to be made (Kleiner, pp 213).
- Byzantine Empire: What are the main ways Byzantine art changed if you were to compare a work from the beginning and final years of this empire?
The Byzantine Empire started as the Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire. While West of the Roman Empire was lost, it was ruled by Constantine who made some changes to the otherwise roman culture and values in the empire. While historians later called the empire Byzantine, back then the natives still considered themselves as roman. In the Early Byzantine era, Christian culture was getting more and more portrayed in the art. Architecture was also centered to Christianity with the building of various churches such as the famous Hagia Sophia. The early age shows the integration of the Greek and Christian cultures through the art of that time. As time progressed and the empire had to face a lot of enemies such as the Arabs, changes were seen in the expression of art as well. So, down the lane the art was influenced by Persian and Islamic cultures. The HagiaSophia was built under the rule of Justinian and it was the largest church in the world. Eventually, as the Byzantine era ended and the Ottoman Empire took its place, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque (Kleiner, pp 268).
Icons, and art of manuscripts became popular in the early era such as the Sinai Icons and the manuscript Vienna Genesis. Then in the middle era icons were replaced by mosaic figures Empress Theodora (Kleiner, pp 279). Decorative walls with exquisite carvings and wall paintings became popular. In the late Byzantine Empire mural paintings depicting Christ were the representation of art such as the painting in the Church of Christ in Chora (Kleiner, pp 288).
- Ancient Greece: What is the Canon of Polykleitos, and how does it shape the representation of the body in classical art?
In literal terms canon here means a rule (of proportion). The ancients Greeks were of the mindset that anything can be made “beautiful” if it was constructed with accurate proportions and size. So, they needed a canon of proportion to make the accurate human figure and for buildings too. The fifth century sculptor then wrote a disquisition (or “treatise”) called the Canon of Polykleitos where he described his formula for the perfectly proportionate human statue. Another ancient philosopher, Pythagoras of Samos, also believed that beauty lied in harmony of numeric ratios. Polykleitos then followed the same reasoning to come up with the perfect statue which was based on mathematical formula (Kleiner, pp 131). Symmetry played a huge role in his philosophy, every body part was in some sort of symmetry to each other. He built a statue on the basis of his formula and called it Canon(Kleiner, pp 131).
Hence, the human body in Greek classical art is viewed as a product of perfection and precision of design and mathematics. After a Polykleitos, Lysippos followed the same footsteps and sculpted the human body which were slightly slender than Polykleitos and also their heads one-eighth the size of the body rather than one-seventh as it was previously. Lysippos work was also very well celebrated so much so that he made the portrait for Alexander the Great. Overall, both sculptors showed athleticism energy in their statues where Lysippos were more about showing different angles (apoxyomenos) rather the Polykleitos (Doryphoros). so, conclusively, the depiction of the human body is one that is athletic and perfectly balanced in terms of physical, mental or spiritual aspects (Kleiner, pp 146).
Section 2
- New Media and Technology: With reference to three illustrations from three different periods covered so far in the class, how do media and/or specific technologies make innovations in art/architecture possible?
Media and technology have always played an important role in the betterment of how things are conducted or structured. Technology helps in bringing innovation. It has been doing so since the beginning of time. From cave men till the present day, we all have been influenced by different kinds of technology which have updated the life around us, mostly for the better than not. Similarly, emergence of new technologies had the same effect on art and architecture throughout various historical periods. Technology helped art and architecture evolve.
Neolithic Age
The first example of this can be seen from the new stone age or the Neolithic Age (9000-2300 BC), where people learned the art of making stone temples, like the GobekliTepe in Anatolia, and sculptures. Unlike previously when most of the art from the Paleolithic age wasn’t able to survive because it comprised mostly of small figurines and images on cave walls. In the new stone age, art is seen to be taking a more solidified form large sculptures and life-size skulls. It was the age of tools such as the ax, adz heads, chisels, and gouges which were made up of stones. They even learned how to polish the tools with abrasives. Pottery art emerged as well which brought the technology of metalworking. Eventually metal tools and weapons emerged as well such as copper and bronze. This technology spread fast. Today we still use evolved and modernized versions of these tools in our daily lives and they have contributed a lot, obviously, for art and architecture (Kleiner, pp 24)
The Roman Empire
The second example can be given from the Roman Empire. Amazing buildings and architectural masterpieces that were built during the Roman empire were the product of technological innovation and advancement in concrete technology. Such as the Pompeii Amphitheatre, it is the oldest example of Roman concrete technology (Kleiner, 192). Another is the Hadrian’s Pantheon which is another marvel of concrete technology and also the largest ancient dome (Kleiner, pp 216). France was known to be the center of innovation in these regards. It is said that the architects of the Holy Roman empire have led the way when it comes to extraordinary and exquisite large buildings. Ever since the romans introduced the world to the use of concrete, we have been dependent on it ever since. It has become an integral part of architecture. Not only this but romans used concrete also to build marine structures to safeguard their harbors which withstood erosive salt water for over 2000 years. Even in the present day, it is difficult to recreate such masterpieces or to even land with the type of concrete romans used. Science is trying to explain its resilience. The recipe romans used to make their concrete was such that the product could with stand harsh environmental conditions such as seawater that our present-day concrete cannot. The mixture included volcanic ash, seawater, lime, and volcanic rock. Traces of another mineral called aluminous tobermorite was also found in it. This mineral is very difficult to create in lab settings even today and is thought to be responsible for the resilience in the concrete.
China in 1200s
The emergence and evolution of paints has also of course, been very relevant and important to the world of art. Some of the earliest forms of paintings can be dated back to the 13th century China. Mural paintings were found in caves (Kleiner, pp 485). They used round tapered brush, soot-based ink, and silk or paper to either write or draw. They were very skilled when it came to contouring and interior details. Furthermore, the Chinese also used richly colored minerals as substitutes for pigments, “finelyground and suspendedin a gluey medium, and watery washesof mineral and vegetable dyes.” (Kleiner, pp 489) They used handscrolls, hanging rolls, dry leaves and holding fans to make drawings. The paints made with naturally occurring materials such as minerals, saps et cetera have now been replaced by synthetic paints.
The technology that we are surrounded with today can all be related back to the ancient periods. Ancient people were the ones who came up with the ideas and inventions that we have evolved and bettered for our use today. Technology and media are constantly evolving and with them so has art and architecture.
- Group and Personal Identity: With reference to three illustrations from three different periods covered so far in the class, how have art/architecture aimed to consolidate group and/or personal identity?
Art and architecture play an important role in showcasing the identity of a group or a society. Throughout history we have seen how different eras had distinctive features and characteristics in their way of expression which was in the form of different types of arts whether it be writing, paintings, sculptors or architecture. In fact, it is through their art that we know them today and we are able to make judgements regarding their societal structures and cultures. Some of the identities that can be understood through art are related to gender and religion. Examples of their depictions can be seen through various historical periods such as the Roman Empire and the Islamic world.
The Roman Empire
We will talk about some characteristics of the Roman Empire that can be extracted from particular sculptures. For example, in Republican Rome the noble families (patricians) or more particularly their men, were differentiated from the common roman masses if they had self-sculptures and portraits. Which is why many unique statues can be found dated back to even the first century BC such as the statue of a man wearing a Toga and holding thebusts of his father and grandfather. The toga represents the badge of citizenship in Rome(Kleiners, pp 187).
Another important observation was that most portraits were of men of older ages. This shows that women were not associated with the same levels of nobility as men. They were found only occasionally. This also shows that only elder men had power in the Roman Republic. The sculptures also do not appear to be making those men any handsomer. In fact, they often exaggerated their less attractive features such as baldness and wrinkles, or just their actual distinctive features. For example, the portrait of the head of priest. It is highly detailed with all the unique facial features. Such portraits also show that traits such as seriousness, determination, loyalty were admired virtues in the Roman empire(Kleiners, pp 188).
Apart from noble man, sculptures and portraits were commissioned by ordinary people as well especially slaves. This depicts how slavery was common in the roman empire. Rich people owned hundreds of slaves but even the poor people could afford to have one or two as well. The practice was really common in the roman world. Some of the slaves were freed but many died in the service of their owners old or new. Some prominent artworks were those that were commissioned by freedmen or freedwomen. One such relief shows two men and one woman, all called Gessius. In the centre is their owner. The slaves are the property of their owners and even after they were freed, they could not serve in the Roman army despite earning the title of people. The relief portrays their gratitude to their ex-owner for granting them freedom (Kleiners, pp 190).
The Islamic World
The Islamic world also has forms of artistic expressions that portray the image of different aspects of Islamic society and identity of muslims. The rise of Islam brought a whole new world of art and architecture and traditions. So much so that it replaced the old Greece-Roman art in the Middle East and North Africa. While in India, Islamic rule brought Islamic art and architecture in South Asia. One of the most famous buildings of Islamic architecture is in fact the Taj Mahal in Agra, India (Kleiners, pp 293).
Moreover, most of Islamic architecture is focused on mosques which entails that the muslim faith and religious practices were very important and celebrated. Mosques were more than just centres for worship. They were also the place where social gatherings and meetings were held. Islam brought about a completely new unique way of life as compared to its predecessors and that reflected in the art and architecture created by Muslim artists. Calligraphy (of Quranic verses often) is a very prominent part of Islamic art. It was seen in paintings, carvings, on walls et cetera. One would not find a lot of human sculptures of paintings in Islamic art as they Would in, for example, Roman art. This is because it was discouraged in Islam to draw or recreate the human form according to the belief that this ability only lies within the hands of God. A lot of copies of the scripture of the Quran were made as a form of art as well. they were made exquisitely with gold and other patterns (Kleiner, pp 305).
Section 3
In a reflective paragraph (100 words or less) describe how your position on, or feeling about the history of art has been altered by what you’ve seen and read so far in the class.
We often tend to underestimate the importance of history because we are too concerned about the present or the future. We forget that our presents and our future have been derived from historical events in the first place. History of art allows us to enter the culture and society of those whose history we study. It allows us to join the pieces together regarding the past and its people. Previously I did not see its relevance as I do now after having studied it. It is not only intriguing but mind-opening towards undiscovered perspectives that go unnoticed by the naked eye.
References
kleiner, fred s. Gardner’ s Art Through The Ages: A Global History. Boston : Cengage, 2020.
